The objective of this paper is to make a rhetorical analysis of the op-ed entitled «Finding Design in Nature» by Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, Archbishop of Vienna, published by The New York Times in 2005, three months after the death of John Paul II. In this essay, the Cardinal states that it is an error to affirm that Catholic doctrine is compatible with the «neo-Darwinist» theory of evolution and that the Roman Catholic Church accepts that theory. For the Archbishop, the origin (...) of this error lies in the abuses committed in the interpretation of John Paul’s 1996 speech in which the Pope affirmed that evolution was more than a hypothesis and showed himself more favourable towards evolutionary theory than his predecessors. In his article the Cardinal described that papal message as «vague and unimportant». In this paper, the rhetorical techniques used by Schönborn in his article are analysed: the lexical choices to make a negative assessment of «neo Darwinist» evolutionary theory; the argumentative definition to make a polemical description of that theory; and the polyphonic proceedures designed to decontextualise the papal discourse and present Catholic beliefs as the truth. We interpret Cardinal Schönborn’s position as a rhetorical change with respect to John Paul II’s 1996 speech. From our point of view, the Archbishop directed his criticism against evolutionary theory not only because of its scientific theories (not rejected by Church teaching) but also for being potentially dangerous in its use by certain authors as a scientific argument in defence of their atheism. (shrink)

Retraction note: Díaz Fernández, J. A. (2023). The urban network of La Coruña and the dynamics of metropolitan development. HUMAN REVIEW. International Humanities Revista Internacional De Humanidades, 17(6), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.37467/revhuman.v11.4848 The Editorial Office of Eurasia Academic Publishing Group has retracted this article. An investigation carried out by our Research Integrity Department has found a group of articles, among which this one is found, that are not within the thematic scope of the journal. We believe that the editorial process was (...) manipulated and, furthermore, acceptance decisions were made under possibly inappropriate peer review. (shrink)

La política de desarrollo regional constituye una de las principales herramientas con las que cuenta la Administración pública para impulsar un modelo de desarrollo económico regional descentralizado en razón a las potencialidades endógenas de las diferentes regiones. Por tanto, la concreción de un modelo de política indicativa destinada a ser implementada en los territorios regionales españoles, como es el caso de Galicia, pretende ejercer de motor de arrastre para incentivar el desarrollo económico del territorio en base a sus potencialidades internas. (...) Galicia, durante mucho tiempo de su historia, ha estado padeciendo el enclavamiento territorial. (shrink)

El conocimiento del medio urbano de La Coruña constituye una temática básica para el estudio de la realidad territorial regional de Galicia. Así, el análisis del modelo de ciudad, su evolución histórica, su red urbana y sus características territoriales, nos facilitan la interpretación de la conformación evolutiva de la red urbana. Para ello, al estudiar mediante el manejo de las diferentes cartografías históricas de la ciudad podremos disponer de una relevante información sobre sus características físicas y territoriales; su articulación en (...) el sistema urbano español, etc. (shrink)

De manera inmediata y tradicional pensamos que hablar sobre política exige forzosamente ligarla a la idea de conflicto. Si bien es cierto que el carácter político marca ciertos modos de habitar el mundo, también es relevante aclarar que, a partir del concepto que tengamos de política, podremos darnos cuenta de si la idea de conflicto es inherente a esta o si la política puede ser pensada desde otro horizonte. Hans-Georg Gadamer nos ofrece una serie de reflexiones hermenéuticas en torno al (...) lenguaje y al diálogo; a partir de allí, intentamos atisbar un concepto de política no solo inherente al conflicto, sino también a su parte medular como lo es el diálogo prudente. Pensar en una política dentro del marco de un horizonte dialógico nos permite arrojar luz a problemas particulares que nos aquejan hoy, los cuales nos interpelan a pensar y repensarlos para comprender por qué hemos llegado a ser lo que somos. (shrink)

Scientific-technological innovation (particularly in the field of transgenic foods and cloning), scientific journalism and public opinion all share a complex relationship. The rupture of internal consensus among the scientific community, the role played by scientific journalists as "mediators" and the differentiation between what can be referred to as the "informed public" or "epistemological leaders" and the rest of the population were the starting point for our research on the impact of news related to biotechnological advances. In this paper we will (...) show the principal characteristics of the discourse on this type of news among what we can call the "informed public". From there, we will establish a set of strategies for improving the level of scientific-technological alphabetisation in our complex societies. (shrink)

El objetivo de la investigación es demostrar que la aplicación del Flipped Classroom mejora el nivel de logro del aprendizaje significativo en estudiantes universitarios. Para la recolección de datos en los grupos control y experimental se aplicaron dos instrumentos: el pre-test y el post-test. Concluido con la aplicación de los talleres basados en la metodología FC, en el postest se observó que en el grupo control, 26 estudiantes obtuvieron una calificación aprobatoria y 11 reprobatoria, mientras que en el grupo experimental, (...) 38 estudiantes, de acuerdo a los criterios de evaluación, todos lograron una calificación aprobatoria. (shrink)

Responding to recent concerns about the reliability of the published literature in psychology and other disciplines, we formed the X-Phi Replicability Project to estimate the reproducibility of experimental philosophy. Drawing on a representative sample of 40 x-phi studies published between 2003 and 2015, we enlisted 20 research teams across 8 countries to conduct a high-quality replication of each study in order to compare the results to the original published findings. We found that x-phi studies – as represented in our sample (...) – successfully replicated about 70% of the time. We discuss possible reasons for this relatively high replication rate in the field of experimental philosophy and offer suggestions for best research practices going forward. (shrink)

Appendix 1 was incomplete in the initial online publication. The original article has been corrected.

José María Vigil y Antonio Caso fueron dos defensores de la democracia liberal y de la posibilidad de un limitado, aunque efectivo, manejo consciente de los asuntos públicos y sociales dentro de los contextos adversos de México durante la administración de Porfirio Díaz y en el periodo post-revolucionario. Ambos autores basan sus posiciones en una crítica concerniente al positivismo y al determinismo social, que apuntaría hacia una manera de pensar muy distante del pensamiento subjetivista, aunque muy cercana (...) a un “realismo directo” epistemológico que establece que el mundo no es de hecho una construcción subjetiva o intersubjetiva que debe interpretarse subjetiva o intersubjetivamente. Sin embargo, esto no es algo que pueda saberse a través de una copia mental o representación de sus entidades y procesos. Tal vez el defensor más evocador del realismo directo en la historia ha sido el filósofo escocés del siglo XVIII, Thomas Reid, un gran representante del “sensocomunismo” explícitamente recuperado por Vigil y reivindicado tácitamente por Antonio Caso. (shrink)

Fruto da colaboração de quatro autores com ligação à Universidade de Salamanca (José-Antonio Cordón-García, Julio Alonso-Arévalo, Raquel Gómez-Díaz, Daniel Linder), Social Reading: platforms, applications, clouds and tags pretende fazer a defesa do conceito e, principalmente, das práticas de leitura social em ambiente digital. E fá-lo apresentando, além da necessária contextualização teórica, efectuada sobretudo no primeiro capítulo, uma série de conselhos e recomendações de plataformas, disp...

The study of these fundamental questions, which were in part already addressed in a first monographic section dedicated to Ḥasdai Crescas in the last issue of this journal, is expanded in its perspective and scope by the articles contained in this second dossier.

This book clarifies the meaning of the most important and pervasive concepts and tools in bioethical argumentation and assesses the methodological suitability of the main methods for clinical decision-making and argumentation. The first part of the book is devoted to the most developed or promising approaches regarding bioethical argumentation, namely those based on principles, values and human rights. The authors then continue to deal with the contributions and shortcomings of these approaches and suggest further developments by means of substantive and (...) procedural elements and concepts from practical philosophy, normative systems theory, theory of action, human rights and legal argumentation. Furthermore, new models of biomedical and health care decision-making, which overcome the aforementioned criticism and stress the relevance of the argumentative responsibility, are included. (shrink)

José Antonio Marina –reincidiendo en su condición de detective cultural– se enfrenta en este libro a un nuevo caso. Durante milenios, la humanidad ha desconfiado de la fuerza del deseo. La sociedad opulenta en que vivimos altera esa tradición. Tiene que estimular constantemente los deseos para sobrevivir. Antes, la economía estaba dirigida por la demanda. Producía lo que era necesario. Ahora se rige por la oferta: crea en el público la necesidad de lo producido. Padecemos así un ansia (...) inacabable, porque siempre nos convencerán de que nos falta algo. Nuestro detective descubre que carecemos de una «teoría del deseo». ¿Qué es, de dónde procede, cuáles son sus determinismos, cómo se manipulan o se educan? A lo lejos resuena Spinoza: «La esencia del hombre es el deseo.» Éstas son palabras mayores. Todo se puede desear. Los placeres elevan arquitecturas arborescentes. Al fragmentarse sus deseos, también la esencia humana se fragmenta, y necesita una operación de bricolaje que la unifique. Al final, aparece un nuevo personaje: el espíritu. (shrink)

La autonomía es parte esencial de la fundamentación moral de la sociedad contemporánea y ha dado lugar en el ámbito asistencial a un nuevo modelo de relación y de toma de decisiones clínicas. El objetivo de este artículo es exponer el significado de la autonomía del paciente a través de la distinción de tres dimensiones: autonomía decisoria, autonomía informativa y autonomía funcional o ejecutiva, la periodización de su evolución normativa a lo largo de tres etapas, y la propuesta de cuestiones (...) o desafíos que merecen ser objeto de estudio y aplicación en el futuro. (shrink)

El trabajo presenta un modelo de psicología moral a partir del análisis del libro primero de las Leyes de Platón y, en particular, de la imagen de la marioneta. Entre los intérpretes contemporáneos se debate sobre si esta imagen compromete una comprensión de la templanza como “victoria” sobre los placeres o si más bien respalda una comprensión de esta virtud como “acuerdo” entre estos y la razón. Para responder a esta cuestión, se recurrirá a la psicología bipartita del Filebo. Esto (...) permitirá reconocer, en la educación de la virtud, el conflicto entre afectos y, en el resultado de este proceso educativo, el acuerdo entre razón y afectividad. (shrink)

One of the objectives in the field of artificial intelligence for some decades has been the development of artificial agents capable of coexisting in harmony with people and other systems. The computing research community has made efforts to design artificial agents capable of doing tasks the way people do, tasks requiring cognitive mechanisms such as planning, decision-making, and learning. The application domains of such software agents are evident nowadays. Humans are experiencing the inclusion of artificial agents in their environment as (...) unmanned vehicles, intelligent houses, and humanoid robots capable of caring for people. In this context, research in the field of machine ethics has become more than a hot topic. Machine ethics focuses on developing ethical mechanisms for artificial agents to be capable of engaging in moral behavior. However, there are still crucial challenges in the development of truly Artificial Moral Agents. This paper aims to show the current status of Artificial Moral Agents by analyzing models proposed over the past two decades. As a result of this review, a taxonomy to classify Artificial Moral Agents according to the strategies and criteria used to deal with ethical problems is proposed. The presented review aims to illustrate (1) the complexity of designing and developing ethical mechanisms for this type of agent, and (2) that there is a long way to go (from a technological perspective) before this type of artificial agent can replace human judgment in difficult, surprising or ambiguous moral situations. (shrink)

Under the influence of naturalistic approaches, contemporary philosophy of science tends to characterize scientific objectivity not by virtue of the individualistic following of rules or satisfying epistemic utilities, but as a property arising from the organisational features of groups. This paper presents a critical review of one such proposal, that of Helen Longino, probing some of its main features against the debate between Pasteur and Pouchet in mid-nineteenth-century France regarding the spontaneous generation of life. After considering some weaknesses and strengths, (...) it is argued that Longino’s social epistemology is only able to generate normativity by implicitly assuming a classic procedural notion of epistemic acceptability. The paper also aims to use this historical case to shed light on the complex, multidimensional nature of the dynamics of actual science, arguing both against purely epistemic and exclusively social approaches in a satisfactory meta-scientific explanation of controversies. (shrink)

Desde su primera juventud, inquietó a José Antonio Maravall la pregunta acerca de quién hace la Historia y hasta qué punto ésta determina nuestra vida. Este ensayo, donde aborda el tema con profusión, lo escribió durante los cuatro años siguientes a su regreso de París en 1954. En el lustro que estuvo allí al frente del Colegio de España, el trato asiduo con varios de los historiadores que entonces dominaban la escena internacional, abrió sus horizontes de respuesta a (...) la pregunta apuntada, respuesta que es, a la vez, un mentís a los determinismos históricos de la Europa de preguerra, y una cortapisa a las utopías del liberalismo individualista. En la Teoría del saber histórico se abordan también los problemas epistemológicos y metodológicos del momento, con la preocupación por la introducción de conceptos y categorías tomadas de las ciencias sociales, y la apertura a nuevos campos de investigación. Pionera en su terreno, y durante tiempo ejemplar único, la obra gozó de gran respeto y mucha influencia. (shrink)

The catalyst for much of classical pragmatist political thought was the great waves of migration to the United States in the early 20th century. José-Antonio Orosco examines the work of several pragmatist social thinkers, including John Dewey, W. E. B. Du Bois, Josiah Royce, and Jane Addams, regarding the challenges large-scale immigration brings to American democracy. Orosco argues that the ideas of the classical pragmatists can help us understand the ways in which immigrants might strengthen the cultural foundations (...) of the United States in order to achieve a more deliberative and participatory democracy. Like earlier pragmatists, Orosco begins with a critique of the melting pot in favor of finding new ways to imagine the civic role of our immigrant population. He concludes that by applying the insights of American pragmatism, we can find guidance through controversial contemporary issues such as undocumented immigration, multicultural education, and racialized conceptions of citizenship. (shrink)

This paper provides a detailed analysis of how, according to Kant, the moral badness of some third parties’ actions can be established with certainty (by anyone, not only by the agent’s own conscience or by God). This account helps clarify why Kant affirms that some forms of wrongdoing (of which there are a “multitude of woeful examples”) can be demonstrated to be immoral, while excluding the possibility of proving the moral goodness of any action. The paper concludes by arguing that (...) the possible certainty of judgements imputing immorality to actions of others is not rational but rather moral. (shrink)

The phenomenon of prophecy is a significant topic with a relevant uniqueness in medieval Jewish thought. In Jewish tradition, prophecy was a form of intermediation between the divine and human. Our intention in this paper is to explore and understand this problem like a theological idea and like an intellectual phenomenon of consciousness with obvious epistemological implications. We shall do taking into account the philosophical influences of this conception, fundamentally Islamic thinkers, and focusing our search in the most significant perspectives (...) about the topic, namely Yehudah Ha-Levi, Abraham ibn Daud and Moses Maimonides. (shrink)

Habermas (2023) analisa uma nova mudança estrutural da esfera pública. Em razão disso, supomos uma esfera pública processual em mutação. Para argumentar, optamos pela leitura do Código de Processo Civil (CPC) em sintonia com Habermas (2023). No plano normativo, o processo é regulado pela Constituição Federal e pelo Código de Processo Civil. Em termos físicos, ele é composto de peças processuais redigidas em papel ou de peças processuais digitalizadas, pois a maioria dos tribunais brasileiros adotou o processo 100% digital. Em (...) termos funcionais, os tribunais adotam o processo como instrumento da jurisdição (devido processo legal). Nesse contexto, a regulação dos atos digitais importa para a existência válida e regular do processo. Por outro lado, a nova esfera pública processual regula a participação dos sujeitos processuais (autor, réu, juiz, servidores, promotores, advogados e defensores públicos, etc.). Essa participação vem sofrendo coerções normativas do tipo: interpretação conforme valores e normas fundamentais estabelecidas na Constituição Federal, solução consensual de conflitos, solução integral do mérito, comportamento de acordo com a boa-fé, dever de cooperação entre si, paridade de tratamento, ônus de argumentação das partes e ônus de avaliação dos argumentos pelo juiz. Podemos acrescentar a utilização das provas digitais e as audiências telepresenciais. Com esse aporte normativo e teórico, intuímos o processo como instrumento dessa esfera pública processual, na qual participam sujeitos com ônus argumentativos e a possibilidade de influenciar o convencimento e as deliberações judiciais. Portanto, a nova esfera pública processual denota o direito de participação e de influência, tal como deduzimos em Habermas. (shrink)

Las experiencias que se sitúan al margen de las lógicas heterosexuales y cisgénericas han sido objeto de interés penal desde el siglo XVIII. Sin embargo, en las últimas décadas, las prácticas sexuales entre personas del mismo sexo, así como las identidades o expresiones de género que no se articulan a través de la concordancia entre genitales y género, han pasado de ser perseguidas a ser protegidas por el Código Penal en buena parte de los países occidentales. En este artículo, se (...) hace un breve recorrido histórico que nos permite explicar cómo los cambios sociales también han significado cambios legales en materia de sexualidad y género, lo que ha generado el espacio que ha permitido la incorporación del paradigma de los delitos de odio en España, incluso con el apoyo de grupos sociales históricamente contestatarios. Asimismo, también se problematiza el paradigma de los delitos de odio, sus contradicciones y limitaciones para proteger a los grupos sociales vulnerables, y concretamente a las personas LGBTIQ. Finalmente, este texto propone algunas reflexiones que ayuden a pensar en vías de justicia restaurativa que puedan contribuir a la reparación o restauración en el caso de delitos de odio en el contexto español. (shrink)

we are called together in indianapolis, under the shadow of the poet Mari Evans, to reflect on the influence and constraints of place, and the transformative and liberatory power of imagination. In her essay, "Ethos and Creativity," Evans looks back on a lifetime spent in Indianapolis. She shares her experiences of uplifting and revelatory art performances, alongside a multitude of spirit-numbing indignities as a result of anti-black racism. The metaphor she chooses to elicit the experience of this racism is that (...) of steel thread encased in luxurious fabric. No matter the beauty and exhilaration of the city, its character has been shaped and framed by an inflexible cord that tethers it to a legacy of white supremacy... (shrink)

Partiendo de la comprensión de Heidegger en torno a los pensadores del inicio desplegada en los cuatros cursos de principios de los años cuarenta del siglo XX, querríamos mostrar la lectura de Heidegger de los pensadores del inicio en contraste con la de Gadamer en torno a los «presocráticos» mostrada en El inicio de la Filosofía occidental. Estudiaremos para ello la palabra Anfang en uno y otro autor contextualizando sus aproximaciones hermenéuticas a los textos griegos. Finalmente prestaremos atención a la (...) interpretación del poema de Parménides de Elea en El Inicio de la Filosofía occidental. Además de una diversa comprensión del final de la filosofía y la tarea del pensar, se nos irá revelando cómo Heidegger despliega indicaciones en torno a la articulación del pensar y la palabra en los pensadores del inicio, mientras Gadamer hace referencias al «valor poético» del poema de Parménides. Tras recorrer los diversos fragmentos transmitidos del poema, concluiremos señalando cómo la cuestión del ser y la verdad interpretada por Gadamer en Parménides remite a la pregunta por el carácter unitario —o al problema del continuo— de la presencia o aparecer que dice «ser», henologicamiente incomprensible sin atender a los cruces ἀλήθεια y φύσις. (shrink)

Resumen: El presente trabajo se centra en los presupuestos hermenéuticos de los que parte la teoría comunicacional del derecho de Gregorio Robles, como doctrina que muestra una vía de superación de la dicotomía entre filosofía analítica y hermenéutica con la finalidad de hacer más claro el lenguaje de los juristas. Para ello, se analizan cuatro de las obras del autor, desde un punto de vista descriptivo y crítico, que presentan una mayor impronta hermenéutica como son Introducción a la Teoría del (...) Derecho, El Derecho como texto, Teoría del Derecho y Comunicación, lenguaje y derecho, para abordar el contexto en el que se mueve, sus influencias, la plausibilidad de la propia teoría dentro del marco analítico-hermenéutico, y el análisis descriptivo y crítico del manejo de determinados conceptos del debate hermenéutico en la teoría comunicacional del derecho. Abstract: The present paper focuses on the hermeneutical assumptions of Gregorio Robles’s communicational theory of law, as doctrine that shows a way of overcoming the dichotomy between analytical philosophy and hermeneutics in order to clarify the language of jurists. For that purpose, it analyzes four of the author’s works from a descriptive and critical point of view that present a greater hermeneutical influence such as Introduction to Legal Theory, Law as Text, Legal Theory and Communication, Language and Law, to tackle the context of the author, his influences, the plausibility of the theory itself within the analytical and hermeneutical framework, and the descriptive and critical analysis of the use of certain concepts of the hermeneutical debate in the communicational theory of law. (shrink)

O presente trabalho constitui um estudo propedêutico acerca da conexão entre o trato nietzschiano do ressentimento enquanto perspectiva interpretativa e o problema do ódio vinculado à esfera política contemporânea. Nesse sentido, e tendo em vista a premissa de que a genealogia nietzschiana pode ofertar um modo de apreensão dos significados manifestos pelo fenômeno do ódio na atual situação política, o percurso metodológico deste estudo parte da análise do ressentimento em Nietzsche e do ódio como seu operativo; em seguida, examina com (...) base nessa interpretação aspectos discursivos e performativos provenientes do atual cenário político. Por esse meandro, propõe-se a edificar uma argumentação baseada no estabelecimento de algumas hipotéticas chaves hermenêuticas desde a quais pretende interpretar determinadas escolhas, práticas e discursos que vêm perfazendo uma reconhecida fatia do ambiente político do qual somos coetâneos. (shrink)

Eschatological beliefs have matured alongside both biblical composition and Christian history. This evolution can be traced using cultural evolutionary studies. The process reflects attempts to adapt to new conditions and challenges—sometimes giving place to more focused views, but also sometimes to failures and dysfunctional forms or fruitless variations. It becomes a theological duty to assess this evolution better. The key element is the reception of these eschatological beliefs, to discern what expressions of them are more helpful in encouraging Christian fidelity, (...) coping with distress, and engaging with individual and societal challenges. In this article, we outline a research programme that links eschatology to anthropology, and that tries to analyse beliefs according to state‐of‐the‐art methods, such as evolutionary cultural studies and research on the believing process. We also contribute a case study based on the concept of hell to test the proposed approach. (shrink)

El artículo describe la decisiva participación de los países América Latina y de sus juristas en el desarrollo del Derecho del Mar, desde el cuestionamiento del Derecho clásico a partir de la Declaración de Santiago (1952) a su modernización en la III Conferencia de la ONU sobre el Derecho del Mar. Expone la disparidad de posiciones entre los Estados “territorialistas” y los “patrimonialistas”, especialmente desde la Declaración de Santo Domingo (1972) que elaboró la noción de “mar patrimonial”, que sirvió de (...) fundamento para la aceptación en la Conferencia de la Zona Económica Exclusiva. El autor -protagonista directo en la Conferencia en su calidad de jefe-adjunto de la delegación española- narra las principales intervenciones de las distintas delegaciones iberoamericanas sobre los principales temas y cuestiones abordados por la Conferencia en sus 11 sesiones, y los avatares que llevaron a la adopción de la Convención de Montego-Bay sobre Derecho del Mar de 1982. (shrink)

The use of energy supplies for economic activities is a major global concern due to its environmental impact. Mitigating this problem involves the adoption of clean energies, so it is not trivial to assess those that can fit into this category, particularly the part corresponding to electrical energy. While the consumption of the latter is often perceived as more environmentally friendly than other sources, its production process raises significant questions, hence the core motivation to evaluate the behavior of the main (...) inputs for electrical energy production over 50 years and its correlation with the world Gross Domestic Product (GDP), confirming a prominent dependence on fossil fuels, a situation that seems to differ from the expectations set forth through the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Conference of the Parties. On the other hand, even though the production of electrical energy is consistent with the behavior of the world GDP, it shows heterogeneous annual percentage changes. (shrink)

The 2016 Royal Society of Chemistry’s report Future of the Chemical Sciences presents four different scenarios for the future of chemistry: chemistry saves the world; push-button chemistry; a world without chemists; and free market chemistry. In this paper we ethically assess them. If chemistry is to solve many of the greatest challenges facing the contemporary world, prioritization of research topics will need to be done explicitly on the basis of moral values, ​​such as solidarity and equity, but also environmental justice, (...) which will have to be central in determining a research agenda for chemistry. The decentralization of chemistry will also present ethical challenges to the research standards established by the scientific community. Ethical education in chemistry may help counteract these risks. We also argue that if chemistry and its subdisciplines are to fulfil their goal of generating knowledge and helping us solve the great challenges of the contemporary world, then it is ethically imperative that scientists from different disciplines be more open to interdisciplinary work. Finally, if the future of chemistry is in free market forms, then it is necessary that we pay more attention to the possible risks that this model has. We call attention to two: first, it is likely that problems that affect the lowest income countries or the most disadvantaged sectors of society, who do not have the means to pay for some of the goods and services, will not be addressed; second, the free market tends to foster unsustainable forms of development. (shrink)